Dramatic fuel ingestion / CO2 decreases are necessary, both near-term and long-run, while tailpipe emanation criterions are going progressively rigorous. The rollout of US and European light-duty emanation criterions and fuel ingestion marks over the following several old ages. Particularly interesting is the crisp decrease in NOx emanations and the tendency toward riddance of alleviation in the Euro NOx emanations standard for vehicles with Diesel engines. The European overall light responsibility vehicle mix is approximately 50 % powered by turbo-Diesels for vehicles run intoing the Euro 4 emanations criterions. This is one ground that fleet averaged CO2 emanations are lower in Europe compared to the US, because turbo-Diesels at the same rated power emit less CO2 compared to baseline of course aspirated ( NA ) gasolene vehicles with multi-port fuel injection ( MPFI ) . However, the cost of Euro 4 turbo-Diesels is significantly greater than a baseline Euro 4 gasolene engine due mostly to the common rail high force per unit area ( 1500 – 2000 saloon ) fuel system, the turbocharger, and differences in the power train construction to suit Diesel burning that produces higher maximal cylinder force per unit areas. As a consequence, the European Diesel market portion is markedly lower than 50 % for smaller vehicles driven by vehicle purchase monetary value sensitiveness. A recent DRI study indicates that the Diesel market portion is about 30 % for subcompact and compact vehicles lighter than approximately1400 kilogram. Euro 5 and Euro 6 emanation criterions will increase the incremental Diesel costs even more due to more rigorous NOx and particulate criterions. Lower cost options for decreased CO2 emanations are therefore particularly attractive for smaller vehicles. Recent development attempts have been published documenting the benefits and challenges of 3-cylinder turbocharged gasolene direct injection ( GDi ) engines. The present paper represents an rating of this engineering as a high value solution supplying low CO2 and NOx emanations for smaller vehicles. The treatment is divided into two subdivisions. First is a engineering analysis of retrenchment and turbo charging, GDi fueling and its synergisms with turbo charging, and an analysis of downsized 3-cylinder versus 4-cylinder engines. The 2nd major subdivision is a value analysis comparing CO2 benefits for 3-cylinder and 4- cylinder gasolene and Diesel power trains. Vehicle electrification is outside the range of the analysis. It is expected that intercrossed vehicle growing continues every bit good as widespread execution of stop-start engineering in Europe. These engineerings complement Diesel and gasolene power trains, and their execution does non alter the stand-alone analysis or decisions provided.
Technology ANALYSIS
TURBOCHARGED GASOLINE DIRECT INJECTION OVERVIEW
Figure 2 is a conventional diagram exemplifying the constructs of retrenchment, shown in the top half of the figure, and down hurrying, depicted in the bottom half of the figure. Both are effectual methods to run into vehicle power demands with decreased fuel ingestion. Downsizing refers to cut downing entire engine supplanting. Downsizing the engine displacements operation from the solid line to the dotted line as shown in the top-right graph of Figure 2. For a given vehicle power demand at changeless velocity, a downsized engine operates at increased BMEP ( specific burden ) , which consequences in greater overall efficiency and therefore reduced fuel ingestion. Down rushing refers to cut downing engine velocity through alterations to the transmittal and/or concluding thrust ratio. Keeping a given vehicle power demand at reduced engine velocity besides requires that the engine operate at higher particular tonss which once more consequences in greater overall efficiency and decreased fuel ingestion. Viewed schematically on an engine speed-load map, downsizing consequences in strictly perpendicular supplanting to higher brake average effectual force per unit areas ( BMEPs ) at changeless velocity and down rushing consequences in a coincident upward and leftward motion to higher burden and lower engine velocity. Uniting downsizing with down hurrying is peculiarly effectual for cut downing fuel ingestion and CO2 emanations. However, sufficient torsion is required across the engine velocity scope, and peculiarly at lower velocities, to keep vehicle class ability and launch public presentation. Turbo charging is a well-known engineering that uses exhaust energy to drive a compressor to increase charge air force per unit area. With intercooling, turbo bear downing significantly increases the maximal mass of air delivered to each engine cylinder to increase the maximal specific torsion and specific power. Engine knock is a confining factor for high burden operation with turbo bear downing. Higher charge temperatures at increased tonss increase the chemical reaction rates for auto-ignition. At lower engine velocities, with increased rhythm times, increased reaction rates can take to significant knock and possible engine damage.GDi is an first-class complementary engineering for turbocharged engines. Figure 4 shows a conventional for a turbocharged stoichiometric GDi engine. Major differences compared to a baseline NA engine with multi-port fuel injection ( MPFI ) are a higher force per unit area fuel system with 120 – 200 saloon typical maximal fuel force per unit area, and turbocharger with intercooler. ( We note here that the GDi fuel pump is drawn to the side of the engine in Figure 4 for ocular lucidity. The pump is really located near the top of the engine and is driven by lobes on the camshaft. ) Exhaust after intervention is accomplished with a conventional 3-way catalytic convertor for stoichiometric engines. Due to the higher power densenesss provided, turbocharged gasolene engines are being developed and implemented in production vehicles with increased frequence.
Conventional representation of engine downsizing Effect of engine retrenchment and down rushing
and down rushing on an engine map
GDi offers a figure of cardinal advantages that enable improved engine public presentation compared to traditional port fuel injection. In-cylinder injection offers advantages during engine tune-up. GDi improves fuel control compared to PFI in a cold engine when fuel vaporisation features are compromised in the consumption port. GDi besides enables a split injection scheme during engine tune-up. Split injection can supply a locally rich mixture near the flicker stopper. This improves burning hardiness to enable greater flicker idiot for accelerator warming while the globally thin mixture provides decreased HC emanations compared to PFI. Additionally, GDi has cardinal characteristics that improve maximal torsion. First, shooting straight into the cylinder improves fuel control and mixture gesture to better burning efficiency. Direct injection besides allows well better scavenging in turbocharged engines at lower velocities and high burden. Under these conditions, intake force per unit area is higher than exhaust force per unit area, so appropriate valve convergence via Cam phasing allows intake air to blow through the cylinder with an unfastened fumes valve to coerce extra residuary gas into the fumes. This procedure consequences in some of the intake charge to besides be exhausted. With MPFI, the intake charge comprises a fuel-air mixture so that scavenging would take to significant sum of unburned fuel blown through to the fumes. However with GDi, the fuel can be injected into the cylinder after the fumes valve has closed. The intake charge fluxing into the fumes does non incorporate fresh fuel, and therefore scavenging can be much more aggressive. In-cylinder injection besides consequences in charge chilling because the heat of fuel vaporisation is absorbed from the in-cylinder air mass. Scavenging and charge chilling provide increased volumetric efficiency and lower charge temperatures to cut down knock for improved burning phasing, efficiency and maximal torsion. This leaning to cut down knock can be augmented by usage of fuels incorporating increased intoxicant content ( such as E85 ) because these fuels have higher heat of vaporisation and increased octane figure compared to gasoline.
GASOLINE DIRECT INJECTION FUEL SYSTEMS
GDi imposes well greater demands on fuel bringing compared to MPFI. In an MPFI engine the fuel is traditionally injected onto the dorsum of a closed consumption valve. During standard, warmed-up MPFI engine operation, heat from the consumption valve quickly vaporizes the fuel in the port before the fuel and air are at the same time inducted into the cylinder during the intake shot. By contrast, fuel vaporisation and commixture for GDi engines must happen quickly in the cylinder. This procedure is mostly influenced by fuel spray features such as droplet size and spray incursion. These features are achieved through careful injection system design with injectors runing at moderate fuel force per unit areas presently up to 200 bars. Homogeneous GDi Fuel Systems GDi operates in both homogenous and thin stratified engine constellations. Figure shows the major constituents for Delphi homogenous GDi fuel systems consisting Multec 12 inwardly-opening, multi-hole GDi injectors, a fuel rail and an engine-driven high force per unit area fuel pump. Key injector demands for homogenous GDi injection are the capableness to run at fuel force per unit areas up to 200 saloon, good one-dimensionality over a broad flow scope to guarantee precise bringing over the full engine map, and spray coevals that provides good vaporisation and blending without wetting in-cylinder surfaces. Injection is typically during the consumption shot to better vaporisation and commixture. Stoichiometric operation with homogenous GDi allows the usage of conventional 3-way fumes accelerators and therefore world-wide application without concerns for thin NOx production and aftertreatment. Two different injector lengths are shown in the figure. Depending on the engine application, the injectors may be in either side-mount or central-mount constellations. The longer injector shown in the figure is required for some engines with central-mount injection. Sidemount injectors are often easier to box in an engine, but the off-axis climb location makes unvarying mixture readying more ambitious and increases concerns for encroachment of the spray on the cylinder wall or Piston top that causes increased smoke emanations. Central-mount injectors provide a more symmetric location that improves commixture and by and large reduces the potency for fuel droplet encroachment. However in-cylinder entree through the caput frequently is prohibited due to boxing struggles with the valvetrain constituents and spark stopper. Regardless of the climb location, multi-hole injectors produce distinguishable spray watercourses from each hole. Features of these watercourses are specific to a given engine to conform to spray aiming demands, and can differ well between applications. Planing the injector utilizes both experimental and modeling tools to at the same time optimise the parametric quantities required for spray formation appropriate to the specific engine.
Stratified GDi Fuel Systems
For stratified GDi fuel systems, the characteristic fuel force per unit area is 200 saloon, and the rail and pump features are well similar between homogenous and stratifiedconfigurations. However the injector required for graded operation is significantly different than the homogenous multi-hole injectors described supra. Modern stratified systems rely chiefly on spray features for stratification. Because the fuel mixture burns with lone aportion of the air mass in the cylinder, the fuel spray must be carefully controlled in both infinite and clip so that a good prepared, combustible charge is provided at the flicker stopper when it fires. Figure shows the Delphi Multec 20 stratified fuel injector. Side- and end-views of the spray are included in Figure to assist exemplify injector spray features. Further inside informations are available in.The fuel injector is centrally-mounted in close propinquity to the flicker stopper, and fuel is injected during the compaction shot in a brief window around the timing of spark ignition. The injector opens externally to bring forth a hollow cone, thin fuel sheet. When injected into elevated force per unit areas characteristic of incylinder conditions during compaction, the fuel sheet forms a recirculation zone to assist put a combustible mixture at the flicker stopper location. The round white marker in Figure depicts the location of this spray recirculation zone. Modeling and simulation are used extensively in developing the injector to guarantee the spray features are suitably tailored to the engine geometry. Multiple injection pulsations are typically used to cut down fuel incursion. Figure shows that the fuel spray is better stratified in the country of the flicker stopper by increasing the figure of spray pulsations from a individual pulsation to multiple, closely separated fuel pulsations. Therefore, the injector delivers multiple, closely separated injection pulsations with high preciseness over a really short clip window. Stratified spray development can besides hold a important impact on ignition demands. The fuel spray from the closely-spaced injector imparts important impulse and turbulency in the country of the flicker spread around the clip of ignition. This, combined with the significant fluctuations in fuel air mixture associated with a graded fuel charge, can make important variableness at the flicker stopper spread. A high energy multi charge ignition system can better ignition consistence to cut down cycle-by-cycle burning variableness.
Centrally-mounted stratified GDi
3-CYLINDER VS 4-CYLINDER DOWNSIZED ENGINE EVALUATION
Engine retrenchment can be accomplished via decrease in the figure of cylinders, and/or a decrease in the displaced volume of each cylinder. The value analysis in the following subdivision begins with a 1.6L naturally-aspirated baseline vehicle and evaluates the benefit of 25 % ( modest ) downsizing to 1.2L turbocharged engines with down rushing. Compared here are 4-cylinder of course aspirated constellations versus downsized turbocharged 3- cylinder applications. Fuel ingestion / CO2 and regulated emanations favor decrease in cylinder figure. Weinowski et al evaluated the brake specific HC emanations of 134 engines. While there was a reasonably broad spread set, HC emanations plotted against cylinder supplanting showed a important lessening in HC emanations with increasing cylinder volume ( and therefore fewer cylinders at changeless engine supplanting ) . Removing a cylinder consequences in smaller quench beds and cranny volume. This improves burning efficiency for lower hydrocarbon emanations and decreased fuel ingestion. Removing a cylinder besides reduces heat transportation surface country for a given supplanting volume. Lower heat loss to the caput and cylinder walls improves thermic efficiency for decreased fuel ingestion. Finally, fewer cylinders cut down clash for an extra fuel ingestion decrease. The overall consequence of cut downing the figure of cylinders on fuel ingestion can be significant. Heil et al evaluated downsized 2.2 L turbocharged GDi engines configured either with 6-cylinders or 4-cylinders. Compared to a 6-cylinder 3.0 L of course aspirated baseline engine at a steady 10 KW runing point, downsizing to 2.2 L with 6-cylinders produced a 4 % decrease in fuel ingestion while downsizing to 2.2 L with 4-cylinders reduced fuel ingestion by 9 % compared to the baseline. High burden public presentation besides favors a 3-cylinder engine because it offers better high burden scavenging. Scavenging efficiency in turbocharged engines is affected by the differential force per unit area between the consumption and fumes during the gas exchange procedure. With 4-cylinder engines, the fire frequence is 180 deg. Consequently, while one fumes valve is unfastened near TDC during the gas exchange procedure, the fumes valve for the following cylinder has already opened near bottom-dead-center to get down the exhaust shot. Initiation of the exhaust shot creates a force per unit area moving ridge that raises exhaust force per unit area and reduces scavenging for the cylinder undergoing gas exchange. The firing frequence for 3-cylinder engines is 240 deg so that an extra fumes valve is non unfastened near top-dead-center during gas exchange. Thus the three cylinder engine experiences a more favourable force per unit area derived function and improved scavenging to increase full burden torsion. Finally, cost and packaging favour a 3-cylinder engine. Reducing cylinder count reduces the figure of needed constituents taking to a direct decrease in cost. Additionally, the demand for fewer constituents and the greater cylinder size offers boxing alleviation that can farther cut down cost and let better optimisation of the fuel injector location. One clear disadvantage to a 3-cylinder engine is degraded NVH. A 3-cylinder engine is inherently balanced for rotary motion. However, there are imbalanced 1st and 2nd order minutes along the length of the engine. These imbalanced minutes bring on a front-back rocking gesture, such that compensation should be provided for a turbocharged 3-cylinder engine. The needed steps include a counterbalancing shaft, and possibly a modified engine mounting constellation. Compensating consequences in sufficient compensation for cylinder supplantings up to about 0.5 L, but consequences in increased cost, size and clash. Colt adult male et al implemented roller bearings to the balance shaft in order to minimise clash effects. Overall, for a downsized and turbocharged GDi engine a 3- cylinder constellation is favored for decreased fuel ingestion and regulated emanations. A 3-cylinder engine besides offers cost and packaging advantages and provides acceptable NVH with compensating. We will therefore carry frontward a 3-cylinder mechanisation as the 1.2 L turbocharged engine considered in the value analysis below.
VALUE ANALYSIS
In this subdivision we evaluate CO2 emanations decrease potency and OEM on-cost for 3-cylinder and 4-cylinder gasolene and Diesel power trains in smaller vehicles ( under 1400 kilogram ) . We limit our range merely to power trains and ensuing after intervention demands. Extra cost steps related to resound decrease, etc. are non included. For this analysis, we define the baseline to be an 1160 kilogram European gasolene vehicle with a 1.6L NA MPFI engine meeting Euro 4 emanations criterions. ( Diesel power trains are heavier, so CO2 comparings are made with 40 kilogram higher mass for Diesel vehicles. ) Let us first see properties of this baseline engine compared to turbocharged Diesel engines in 2008 Model Year. Figure shows that the baseline gasolene engine and the turbocharged Diesel have comparable specific power. The turbo-Diesels generate bomber stantially greater specific torsion. This enables a 25 % longer gear ratio for the Diesel powertrains so that they by and large operate at higher tons. Diesel vehicles from 2008 show about 24 % lower CO2 emanations compared to baseline gasolene vehicle To measure CO2 emanations decrease potency against this baseline, we look to the expected public presentation of future turbocharged engines run intoing well tighter emanations criterions ( i.e. Euro 6 ) . Figure 12 offers a expression at the public presentation attributes assumed in our analysis for these future engines compared to series production vehicles of today. A study of current production powertrains shows that current turbocharged vehicles deliver typical specific torsion values of 150 N-m/L for both common rail Diesel and GDi vehicles. The EU understanding defines first execution of Euro 6 criterions in 2014. We expect moderate additions in specific torsion and power for turbocharged engines by that clip. Therefore for our analysis we have assumed a 20 % addition in specific torsion for turbocharged vehicles to supply a maximal value of 180 N-m/L. Specific power for GDi vehicles is assumed to be 80 kW/L and common rail Rudolf diesels are assumed to present 65 kW/L. Clearly these values do non stand for the & A ; acirc ; ˆ?best in category & A ; acirc ; ˆA? for future power trains. In fact, engines exist today that exceed our false engine public presentation for 2014, and we expect public presentation and fuel efficiency promotions to go on for GDi turbocharged engines by utilizing cooled EGR [ 24 – 25 ] and other inventions. However, we have chosen public presentation estimations that we expect to stand for mean vehicles 5 old ages from now utilizing single-stage turbo charging, no cooled EGR, and transmittals designed to suit mean torsion degrees. These Numberss are more appropriate for our analysis to better measure the value of the engineerings for widespread decrease of vehicle CO2 / fuel ingestion and are appropriate for the smaller, lighter-weight, value-segment of the market. Table 1 indicates the engineerings considered in the analysis. The left-hand side of the tabular array describes the engine engineering. The columns in the centre of the tabular array offer a comparative appraisal of the major subscribers to system cost. The right-hand subdivision of the tabular array estimates CO2 emanation. The first two rows in the tabular array comprise the 2008 gasolene and Diesel engines we have discussed above meeting Euro 4 emanations. The staying rows consider turbocharged GDi and Diesel common rail engineerings we project for smaller vehicles run intoing Euro 6 emanations criterions in 2014. Diesel engine direction systems are utilizing increased fuel injection force per unit areas and injection schemes, higher EGR degrees and promotions in burning control, so that engine-out NOx emanations continue to drop well ( see, for illustration, Schoeppe, et Al ) . Consequently, there is a good opportunity that a figure of smaller engines in compact vehicles will be able to run into the approaching Euro 6 emanations criterions without NOx after intervention. However, US Tier 2 criterions have a more rigorous NOx demand with a much greater likeliness of necessitating NOx after intervention for all Diesel engines. And future NOx criterions everyplace can be expected to go continually more rigorous. Particularly for downsized engines runing at higher tonss that produce greater NOx emanations, run intoing these tighter emanations criterions without after intervention will be well more hard. Sing after intervention constellations with and without NOx after intervention in our survey offers a value appraisal for a broader scope of engines, and indicates sensitiveness of the engineerings to progressively rigorous emanation criterions. The estimated consequence of the assorted engine engineerings on CO2 emanations over the NEDC thrust rhythm for a compact ( 1160 kg baseline ) vehicle. At the same engine supplanting, down rushing the turbocharged engine enables a 9 % decrease in CO2 compared to the baseline. The staying gasolene systems have been downsized to 3- cylinders. Stoichiometric 3-cylinder mechanisations offer up to 18 % reduced CO2 with 2-step VVA. A turbocharged 3- cylinder stratified system offers up to 22 % reduced CO2.
For the Diesel engines, we recall that a Euro 4 common rail turbo-Diesel offers 24 % decrease in CO2 compared to the gasolene baseline. Engine direction system ascents for Euro 6 ( described antecedently ) at the same engine supplanting will offer some extra decrease in CO2 emanations compared to a Euro 4 Diesel engine. Some fluctuation in CO2 occurs depending on NOx after intervention pick. Adding after intervention allows for more aggressive chase of CO2 decrease possible at higher engine-out NOx degrees. The SCR system offers the greatest overall decrease in CO2 because an LNT requires extra fuel to supply periodic rich fumes conditions to cut down NOx stored on the LNT. Downsizing the engine to 3 cylinders reduces CO2 approximately 5 % further for all NOx after intervention constellations. An interesting consequence of all-embracing turbo charging and retrenchment is to cut down the CO2 emanations difference between gasolene and Diesel power trains. The 4-cylinder Euro-4 turbo-Diesel in our analysis emits 39 g/km less CO2 than the baseline Euro-4 MPFI gasolene vehicle. After downsizing both power trains, and using turbocharged GDi for gasolene, our analysis indicates the Diesel power train CO2 difference is approximately 25 g/km compared to homogenous GDi with 2-step VVA, and about 18 g/km compared to stratified GDi. Included are both gasolene and Diesel power trains with 3- cylinder and 4-cylinder engines. Overall, the Euro 6 mechanisations that provide the greatest value for CO2 decrease are the two stoichiometric 3-cylinder turbocharged gasolene engines and the 3-cylinder turbo-Diesel application necessitating no NOx after intervention. These most favourable solutions cut down CO2 at an on cost rate of 24 – 25 euros / per centum. Downsized 3-cylinder engines offer improved value compared to 4-cylinder engines both through cost decrease and lower CO2 emanations. Whether gasolene or Diesel, systems implementing thin after intervention appear unfavourable because of the significant added cost.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Turbocharged GDi engines are a cardinal enabler for downsizing that can well cut down CO2 emanations from gasolene engines. Good low terminal torsion is critical to keep good drivability with retrenchment and down hurrying in turbocharged engines. Low terminal torsion additions with GDi because it allows improved scavenging efficiency and cools the intake charge to cut down knock. GDi besides improves fuel control and mixture gesture to better burning efficiency. For downsized engines, cut downing the figure of cylinders offers advantages over merely cut downing cylinder supplanting volume. In smaller vehicles, for a given engine supplanting, 3-cylinder engines provide less heat transportation surface country and a decrease in the quench bed and crannies for improved burning efficiency and lower engine-out emanations compared to 4-cylinders. Lower fire frequence per engine rhythm with 3-cylinders reduces exhaust force per unit area pulsings during the gas exchange procedure supplying better scavenging at high tonss. Decrease in figure of cylinders besides consequences in decreased clash and lower cost, but introduces unbalanced torque pulsings bring oning a front-back swaying action of the engine. For higher specific end products in turbocharged engines, compensating compensations can supply acceptable NVH for cylinder supplantings up to about 0.5 litres. Consequently, 3-cylinder turbocharged engines are attractive for engines up to 1.5 L supplanting. Our value analysis estimations of OEM on-cost and CO2 decrease considered 3-cylinder and 4-cylinder turbo-Diesel and turbocharged GDi mechanisations. For a compact vehicle meeting Euro 4 criterions, a 4-cylinder turbo-Diesel reduces CO2 emanations at an on cost rate of 22 euros / per centum CO2 decrease. Our analysis of compact turbocharged vehicles configured to run into Euro 6 emanations in 2014 shows two gasolene constellations and one Diesel power train mechanisation to hold the best value. They cut down CO2 at an on cost rate of 24-25 euros / per centum. The turbo-Diesel constellation is a downsized 3-cylinder engine with engine out NOx that must be capable of run intoing the Euro 6 NOx criterion without thin after intervention.